From the hashish dens of Cairo to the hemp fields of colonial Virginia, cannabis sustained empires, inspired poets, and entered the Western pharmacopeia.
The period from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (c. 500 CE) through the early 19th century encompasses some of the most consequential developments in cannabis history. During this millennium and a half, cannabis served as the backbone of European naval power through the hemp industry, became central to Islamic cultural and intellectual life through hashish, spread to sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas, and entered the Western medical establishment as a recognized therapeutic agent. This era laid the groundwork for both the prohibition movement of the 20th century and the modern medical cannabis movement that would follow.
✅ Note This article covers cannabis history from approximately 500 CE through the early 19th century. For the ancient period, see Ancient Origins. For the prohibition era, see The Prohibition Era.
Following the Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries, cannabis was absorbed into the expanding Islamic world from multiple sources: Persian, Indian, and Egyptian traditions all contributed to Islamic knowledge of the plant. The Arabic word for cannabis -- hashish (حشيش, literally "grass" or "herb") -- would become the most widely recognized term for concentrated cannabis preparations worldwide.
Islamic physicians inherited and expanded upon the medical knowledge of ancient Greece, Persia, and India. Cannabis features prominently in the medical literature of the Islamic Golden Age (c. 800 -- 1300 CE):
Al-Razi (Rhazes, c. 854 -- 925 CE), the great Persian polymath and physician, described cannabis in his medical encyclopedia al-Hawi (The Comprehensive Book). He noted its analgesic properties and used it in treatments for various conditions, building on earlier Persian and Greek sources.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980 -- 1037 CE), the author of The Canon of Medicine -- arguably the most influential medical textbook in the world for the next six centuries -- discussed cannabis extensively. He described its use for treating gout, tumors, earaches, and digestive disorders. Ibn Sina's work transmitted ancient cannabis knowledge directly into the European medical tradition, as The Canon of Medicine was translated into Latin and became a standard text in European medical schools.
Ibn al-Baitar (1197 -- 1248 CE), the Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist, provided detailed botanical descriptions of cannabis in his Compendium on Simple Medicaments and Foods, one of the most comprehensive pharmacological works of the medieval period.
While cannabis was used medicinally throughout the Islamic world, a distinctive culture of concentrated cannabis consumption emerged, particularly in Egypt and the Levant. By the 11th century, hashish -- prepared by compressing and concentrating the resinous trichomes of the cannabis plant -- was widely consumed across the Islamic world.
The legend of the Assassins (Hashshashin) is perhaps the most famous -- and most contested -- story of medieval hashish use. Marco Polo (1254 -- 1324) reported that the Nizari Ismaili leader known as the "Old Man of the Mountain" used hashish to induce visions of paradise in his followers, motivating them to carry out dangerous missions. Most modern historians regard Polo's account as legendary rather than factual, and the etymological connection between "hashish" and "assassin" is disputed. However, the story -- whatever its truth value -- demonstrates that hashish use was sufficiently well known in the medieval Islamic world to feature in European travel narratives.
Some Sufi mystical orders in the Islamic world incorporated hashish into their spiritual practices, using it as an aid to meditation and spiritual experience -- paralleling the use of bhang in Hindu tradition. This practice was controversial within Islamic law, and the legal status of hashish fluctuated across different dynasties and regions.
Several rulers attempted to suppress hashish use. In 1378, the Ottoman Emir Soudoun Scheikhouni issued one of the earliest recorded edicts against hashish, ordering the destruction of cannabis crops and the punishment of users. Similar prohibitions appeared periodically throughout the medieval Islamic world, though they were rarely as comprehensive or as effectively enforced as the global prohibition campaigns of the 20th century. See The Prohibition Era for the modern parallel.
While the Islamic world concentrated on cannabis's psychoactive and medicinal applications, medieval and early modern Europe developed the largest hemp industry the world had yet seen. For centuries, hemp was not primarily valued for its psychoactive properties in Europe -- it was an indispensable industrial crop.
The most critical use of hemp in early modern Europe was for naval cordage. Hemp rope was the strongest natural fiber available for ship rigging, and no European naval power could function without vast quantities of hemp. A single warship of the line required approximately 60 tons of hemp for its ropes, sails, and oakum (hemp fibers used for caulking seams).
England was particularly dependent on imported hemp. The British Navy -- the foundation of British imperial power -- consumed enormous quantities of Russian hemp, imported through the Baltic port of Archangel. The strategic importance of hemp was such that the British government stockpiled hemp in the Royal Hemp Stores and passed legislation requiring domestic hemp production.
Hemp was declared a strategic commodity in multiple European nations. England's Navigation Acts and subsequent legislation encouraged hemp cultivation in the American colonies. Russia became the world's largest hemp exporter, supplying the navies of Britain, France, and the Netherlands.
Several European governments mandated hemp cultivation:
These mandates demonstrate the extraordinary strategic importance placed on hemp by early modern states. The plant was not merely useful -- it was considered essential to national security.
Beyond naval applications, hemp was the dominant fiber crop for European textiles. Hemp clothing, sacks, canvas, and household linens were ubiquitous. While flax (linen) was preferred for fine garments, hemp provided the coarse fabrics used by the majority of the population. The English word "canvas" derives from the Latin cannabis, directly reflecting hemp's role in sailcloth production.
Hemp was a standard rotation crop in European agriculture. Its deep taproot improved soil structure, and its rapid growth suppressed weeds. Hemp seed was used as bird feed and as a source of cooking oil. Every part of the plant was utilized -- a model of efficiency that modern sustainability advocates have noted with interest. See Cultivation for modern hemp growing practices.
Cannabis was present in North Africa from ancient times, reinforced by Islamic trade routes connecting Egypt, the Levant, and the Maghreb. Hashish consumption was documented in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya throughout the medieval period.
Morocco would eventually become one of the world's most significant cannabis-producing regions, particularly the Rif Mountains in northern Morocco, which remain a major hashish-producing area to this day. The Rif hashish trade developed significantly during the medieval and early modern periods, with hashish exported across North Africa and into southern Europe.
Cannabis reached sub-Saharan Africa through multiple routes:
African cannabis traditions were diverse and well-developed. Various African languages developed distinct terms for cannabis, including dagga (southern Africa), bangue (Central Africa), and riamba (Central Africa). The plant was used medicinally, ritually, and recreationally across the continent.
Cannabis was not native to the Americas and was introduced by European colonizers. However, some scholars have argued that certain indigenous American plants with similar properties (such as Salvia divinorum in Mexico and various species of Datura) served analogous roles in indigenous spiritual and medicinal practices.
European colonists brought hemp to the Americas as a required crop:
George Washington cultivated hemp at Mount Vernon, primarily for fiber but possibly also for medicinal purposes. His farm records from 1765 include the note "Sow hemp at different times" and references to separating male and female plants -- a practice that maximizes resin production in female plants, suggesting at least some awareness of the plant's psychoactive properties. Thomas Jefferson also cultivated hemp at Monticello and imported hemp seeds from abroad.
It is important to note that the hemp cultivated by the American founders was primarily industrial hemp -- low in psychoactive compounds and valued for its fiber. The distinction between industrial hemp and high-THC cannabis was not understood in the modern sense, but the cultivars grown in colonial America were likely selected for fiber production rather than psychoactive effects.
High-THC cannabis varieties arrived in the Americas through multiple routes:
The scientific classification of cannabis began in the 18th century as European botanists systematized the natural world:
The most significant figure in introducing cannabis to Western medicine was William Brooke O'Shaughnessy (1808 -- 1889), an Irish physician working for the British East India Company in Bengal, India.
O'Shaughnessy encountered cannabis in India, where it was used extensively in both Ayurvedic medicine and popular culture (as bhang, ganja, and charas). Intrigued by its traditional applications, he conducted systematic experiments -- first on animals, then on himself -- to evaluate its effects.
In 1839, O'Shaughnessy published his landmark paper "On the Preparations of the Indian Hemp, or Gunjah" in the Provincial Medical Journal. He reported successful treatment of:
O'Shaughnessy brought cannabis preparations back to England upon his return in 1842, introducing the plant to the Western medical establishment. His work sparked widespread interest in cannabis as a therapeutic agent.
Almost simultaneously, the French psychiatrist Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours (1804 -- 1884) began studying the psychological effects of cannabis. Moreau, who had traveled to the Middle East and observed hashish use there, experimented extensively with hashish on himself and his patients.
In 1845, Moreau published Du Hachisch et de l'Alienation Mentale (Hashish and Mental Illness), one of the first systematic studies of cannabis's psychological effects. Moreau founded the Club des Hashischins in Paris (1844 -- 1849), a group of intellectuals and artists who gathered to experiment with hashish and discuss its effects. Notable members included:
Moreau's work was groundbreaking in several ways. He recognized that cannabis could produce altered states of consciousness, proposed that these states might illuminate the nature of mental illness (particularly psychosis), and suggested that cannabis might have therapeutic applications in psychiatry -- an idea that would be largely abandoned during the prohibition era and only recently revived in modern research.
Following the work of O'Shaughnessy, Moreau, and others, cannabis was incorporated into Western pharmacopeias throughout the 19th century:
Cannabis was prescribed for a wide range of conditions during the Victorian era:
| Condition | Victorian Application |
|---|---|
| Pain (various types) | Analgesic tinctures |
| Insomnia | Sedative preparations |
| Migraine | Oral and sublingual dosing |
| Rheumatism | Topical and internal use |
| Menstrual cramps | Tincture dosing |
| Tetanus | Antispasmodic application |
| Convulsions | Emergency dosing |
| Appetite loss | Appetite stimulant |
| Nervous disorders | Calming preparations |
| Sexually transmitted infections | Symptom management |
One of the most persistent anecdotes of Victorian cannabis use involves Queen Victoria herself. According to her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds (1828 -- 1896), the Queen was prescribed cannabis tincture for menstrual cramps and other conditions. Reynolds published a paper in The Lancet (1890) titled "Indian Hemp" in which he described cannabis as "one of the most valuable medicines we possess" and detailed his extensive clinical experience with the substance.
Reynolds's paper is significant because it represents the considered judgment of one of Victorian England's most eminent physicians, based on decades of clinical practice. He wrote:
"I have used Indian hemp very extensively, and I have not known it to produce any bad effects whatever... When the pure drug is used, the results are most satisfactory."
By the late 19th century, cannabis was a standard product of the pharmaceutical industry. Major pharmaceutical companies, including Parke-Davis, Eli Lilly, Bristol-Myers, and Squibb, produced and sold cannabis preparations:
These products were legal, widely available, and used by patients across the social spectrum. The notion that cannabis was inherently dangerous or had no medical value would have been incomprehensible to 19th-century physicians and pharmacists.
The 19th century produced a substantial clinical literature on cannabis. A search of medical journals from the period reveals hundreds of articles on cannabis's therapeutic applications. The American Medical Association did not oppose cannabis -- on the contrary, it opposed the prohibition measures that would later be introduced, as documented in the Prohibition Era article.
Key 19th century medical publications on cannabis include:
Despite its widespread acceptance, 19th-century medicine faced significant challenges in working with cannabis:
These challenges did not lead 19th-century physicians to reject cannabis -- rather, they worked within the limitations of their knowledge and technology to use it as effectively as possible. The problems of standardization and potency would later be cited as justification for prohibition, but this interpretation is contested by historians.
The relationship between colonial powers and cannabis was complex and often contradictory:
In India, the British colonial administration initially tolerated and even taxed cannabis production and sale. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission of 1893-1894, appointed by the colonial government, conducted an extensive investigation and concluded that moderate cannabis use was not harmful and that prohibition would be counterproductive. The Commission's report remains one of the most thorough government studies of cannabis ever conducted.
In Egypt, the British colonial authorities took a more restrictive stance, attempting to limit hashish production and consumption -- partly for genuine public health reasons and partly as an exercise of colonial control.
In South Africa, British colonial authorities became concerned about cannabis (dagga) use among indigenous and Indian populations, laying the groundwork for later prohibition.
These colonial attitudes -- ranging from tolerance to suppression -- foreshadowed the divergent approaches that different nations would take in the 20th century.
| Date | Event | Location | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| c. 700 CE | Cannabis introduced to Islamic medicine | Middle East | Islamic Golden Age medical tradition begins |
| c. 854 -- 925 | Al-Razi documents cannabis | Persia | Islamic medical literature on cannabis |
| 980 -- 1037 | Ibn Sina writes Canon of Medicine | Persia | Cannabis enters canonical Western medicine via translation |
| 11th century | Hashish culture documented | Egypt, Levant | Concentrated cannabis preparations widely used |
| 1197 -- 1248 | Ibn al-Baitar's pharmacological compendium | Al-Andalus | Detailed botanical description of cannabis |
| 1378 | Emir Soudoun Scheikhouni bans hashish | Cairo | One of earliest recorded cannabis prohibitions |
| 1533 | Henry VIII mandates hemp cultivation | England | Strategic crop legislation |
| 1563 | Elizabeth I reinforces hemp mandates | England | Expanded cultivation requirements |
| 1611 | Hemp required at Jamestown | Virginia | Colonial hemp cultivation begins |
| 1630s | Hemp cultivation mandated | Massachusetts, Connecticut | New England hemp industry established |
| 1753 | Linnaeus classifies Cannabis sativa | Sweden | Scientific taxonomy begins |
| 1785 | Lamarck distinguishes C. indica | France | Two-species cannabis taxonomy |
| 1839 | O'Shaughnessy publishes Indian hemp research | India/England | Cannabis enters Western medical mainstream |
| 1844 -- 1849 | Club des Hashischins active | Paris | Intellectual exploration of cannabis effects |
| 1845 | Moreau publishes Du Hachisch | France | First systematic psychological study of cannabis |
| 1850 | Cannabis enters US Pharmacopeia | United States | Official medical recognition |
| 1867 | Cannabis enters British Pharmacopeia | Britain | Official medical recognition |
| 1890 | Reynolds publishes on Indian Hemp in The Lancet | Britain | Influential clinical endorsement |
| 1893 -- 1894 | Indian Hemp Drugs Commission | India | Most thorough government cannabis study of the era |
| 1896 | Wood publishes on Cannabis americana | United States | American medical literature expands |
By the end of the 19th century, cannabis occupied an unassailable position in the Western medical establishment. It was:
Everything was in place for cannabis to continue its gradual integration into modern medicine. Instead, the early 20th century would bring a dramatic and unexpected reversal. See The Prohibition Era for the story of how cannabis was criminalized despite its established medical and industrial credentials.
| Page | Description |
|---|---|
| Ancient Origins | Cannabis in prehistory and ancient civilizations |
| The Prohibition Era | How cannabis became criminalized in the 20th century |
| Cannabinoids Overview | The chemical compounds Victorian physicians worked with empirically |
| Consumption Methods | Historical and modern routes of administration |
| Strains Index | Historical cultivars and landrace varieties |
✅ Disclaimer This wiki is provided strictly for educational purposes. Nothing on this site constitutes medical, legal, or professional advice. Cannabis laws vary by jurisdiction and change frequently. Always consult qualified professionals and verify your local laws before taking any action based on information found here.
Last updated: April 2026 | CannaGrow is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.